Sex as a biological variable in ageing: insights and perspectives on the molecular and cellular hallmarks via The Royal Society

Sex-specific differences in lifespan and ageing are observed in various species. In humans, women generally live longer but are frailer and suffer from different age-related diseases compared to men. The hallmarks of ageing, such as genomic instability, telomere attrition or loss of proteostasis, exhibit sex-specific patterns.

Sex chromosomes and sex hormones, as well as the epigenetic regulation of the inactive X chromosome, have been shown to affect lifespan and age-related diseases. Here we review the current knowledge on the biological basis of sex-biased ageing.

Understanding these molecular differences is crucial as the elderly population is expected to double worldwide by 2050, making sex-specific approaches in the diagnosis, treatment, therapeutic development and prevention of age-related diseases a pressing need.

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